Oligopoly (Economics) Essay

1) Oligopoly is when a particular market is controlled by a small group of firms. For example supermarkets, there are three (there usually exist three companies) companies which dominate the market, Wong and Metro, Santa Isabel and Plaza Vea, and Tottus. The main assumptions that economists make when talking about a situation of Oligopoly are various; three or four large companies dominate the industry, but small companies do exist (smaller companies in the recent example would be for example â€Å"Arakaki†, a sole trader company); firms are interdependent, al will watch what the competitors do and act accordingly (when Wong created the â€Å"Bonus† card, it did not even passed a week when Santa Isabel created the â€Å"Mà ¡s Mà ¡s† card); the existence of the kinked demand curve (which we will see what it is on question b); there are barriers to entry, this means it is difficult for other firms to enter the industry; non price competition, as companies cannot compete by prices, therefore they have to compete with the service they offer (for example the â€Å"Bonus† and the â€Å"Mà ¡s Mà ¡s† cards); the oligopoly must be collusive (collusion), this means when the companies, which dominate, work together to maintain very high prices at the expense of the consumer (for example Umbro and Adidas, sell football shirts at very high prices, as a Manchester United shirt costs approximately $50), companies which work together to maintain high prices should be fined, as it is illegal. Advertising is also essential to maintain a high profit and market share, and also something very important, which is to develop brand loyalty (for example, once I began to buy â€Å"Sony† electro domestics, I begin to have a brand loyalty, as I never had a single problem with them). 2) The causes of price stability (when prices are stable, without any change) existing in a situation of Oligopoly are two. The first reason is due to the shapes of the Demand curve (AR). Putting an example of gasoline stations, if there are three companies in this market (Shell, Texaco and Mobil), and if one company, for example shell, decides to increase its prices, no other company will follow, and its sales will decrease by a lot (there will be no incentive for companies to increase prices as consumers have other companies to buy gasoline from, therefore it is elastic as there has been a small change in price but a big change in demand). A company will also not lower its prices because all other companies in the industry will do the same (as people will go to where prices are lower), and there will be very few benefits, also profits will decrease, as sales increase by only a small amount (there has been a big change in price but a small change in demand, therefore inelastic). Firms will leave the price unchanged, and the firms will have to use other objects to compete with each other, this includes product differentiation through advertising and innovation. The price elasticity of demand looks at the responsiveness of QD to a change in price. It is better for companies to therefore use the same price and find other ways of increasing their sales, for example to use non price competition in order to increase sales. â€Å"The solution concludes that there is a determinant and stable price-quantity equilibrium that varies according to the number of sellers. In effect each firm makes assumptions about its rival’s output. Adjustment or reaction follows reaction until each firm successfully guesses the correct output of its rivals†. The second reason of price stability in Oligopoly is, if a company maximises its profits where MC=MR, therefore the point where this two curves cross will give us the price and the quantity the company should provide. The marginal revenue curve is not continuous, as it has a very big gap in it, this is called the â€Å"Region of Indeterminacy†, and the MC curve can pass through any part of this region, this gap in the MR curve, allows MC to vary without affecting either final price or quantity. For prices to change, costs would need to rise above MC†.

Man Utd – Swot and Pest

Manchester united Manchester United (ManU) is one of the leading football clubs in the world. ManU has won many titles in the football competition making the club to be the most successful football club in the world. The success of this club is contributed by the good management of Sir Alex Ferguson who has been the manager since 1986 when Ron Atkinson left (Official website, ManU). Introduction The football industry in UK has become popular because of the first successes in the industry, an attribute that made it a viable business. The main aim of this report is to analyze the SWOT and PEST analysis of Manchester United.From this analysis, it will be possible to identify both the internal and external strengths of the company. SWOT analysis SWOT analysis can be used to know the success factors of ManU as well as to identify the strategies to be overcome the club's weaknesses. Moreover, SWOT analyses will enable the company to identify the opportunities to improve performance. SWOT a nalysis of Manchester United is presented below: Strengths The key strength of Manchester United is its well recognized brand all over the world. ManU has achieved such good brand name by heavy advertisement through the internet, TV and magazines (Andrews, 2004).This massive advertisement has made the club to get various sponsors. This means that whenever the company raises any merchandise in the market, indicating their name and symbol, it will be identified by its funs all over the world. Strength of the club is the presence of a big fan base which has improved the financial stability of the club. This big fan base has made a very high purchase figure whenever the tickets are being sold. Furthermore, Manchester United has various distribution channels which enable it to deliver new products introduced into the market.Furthermore, these channels can be used by the Manchester United to obtained feedback from the market concerning their products and performances. Weaknesses From the website of the company, it shows that the major weakness is the products and product variety. It is evident that the company has been introducing many diverse products at different occasions. All these diverse products have been introduced from the jersey to credit cards indicating that the company has exploited the available sources of income within the company.This action needs to be researched as soon as possible so as to help the company to situate and analyze it products, adopt the use of effective instruments such as the Boston Matrix which will help the company to identify that the products are doing well in the market. Lastly, the club has been so affluent, and it is still operating on such a high level, there is a worrying within the management of the company that it will loose its origin, which has a diverse concentration of the club from football to the proceeds.Such moves might have a great effect to its fans because the fans come from all over the world. Opportunities P enetration of the Manchester United to the American market has been one of the major opportunities to the company. The company will in future structure its club by entering into coalition with the New York Yankees. The New York Yankees is one of the well-off teams in the world. This will assist the company by ensuring that exclusive distribution channels are established in the United States of America. Through this the company will be in a position to enter and present their products in a new market.Furthermore, the Manchester United will be in a position to lead all the football clubs in the America, though there will be superior height of risks concerned. The managers believe that by entering a coalition with the Yankees, this threat will be reduced (CNN, 2010). Threats Manchester United operates under a great threat in this field because other big teams like Manchester City and Arsenal which are currently improving in their performances. These and other teams have become very big competitors to the club. Furthermore, the Manchester United FC has been facing internal threats to the team.There is a frequent change of leadership in the company making the club to be disunited. Nonetheless, this will affect the sale of merchandise. Lastly, the club is lacking enough finances for financing academies and junior football, so that they can train the best footballers to ensure smooth succession in the future. PEST Analysis of the Manchester United The club's decision has been affected by macro-environmental factors such as the changes in taxes, new laws, demographic changes and the changes in government policy. The managers of Manchester United can classify these as the political, economical, social and technological factors.Political factors This comprises of the laws which govern the issues affecting the activities of the club. Currently the team is undergoing a problem of paying out its debts which amount to $1. 5 billion, a figure which was misappropriated by the greedy owners. The fans of Manchester United from England are preparing to join their efforts to force legislators to consider pro-football legislation in parliament which will aim at fighting the total arrears which has not being paid because of corrupt owners who misuse the funds of the club. Such an action has exploited the loyalties of fans of Manchester United.Economical factors The club has boosted the economy through employment opportunities which have been created to the players and the officials. The positive effect of Manchester United FC is felt globally because they employ the best players globally. Secondly, this soccer club has been a catalyst in the regional development because of the positive financial flows which are generated by the supporters of the team across the world. Lastly, the club has a positive influence on the economy because its officials are thrown from all over the world.These officials spend an average of 15 ? on basic needs such as food, drinks etc . in a single match. If the supporters are from foreign countries they bring in foreign currencies which will eventually boosts the Balance of Payments in the country Technology Technology has contributed positively to the foot ball games since the players are capable of playing at night due to the availability of electricity. Furthermore, technology has facilitated various people from different parts of the world to watch football irregardless of there locations.Technology has facilitated fans of the club to obtain information from the internet concerning the performances of the company. This has benefited those Manchester United fans to get updates incase they had missed to watch the game. Social Manchester United just like any other football team has united many people especially the funs of football. People have interacted all over the world because of football. People from different age groups normally watch football because it is either their favorite game or because they want to watch just for leisure.Football has become part of the society in the current world, everybody in the world talks of football, either English Premier League or the world cup championships. This is very important since it has affected the society in a positive way i. e. it can create employment in the region. For example, the world cup will be in South Africa this year. The South African government will collect a lot of revue in terms of taxation, sales of tickets and any other taxable stuff. This will have close relationship with the social cultural factors though indirectly (Masterman, 2009).Manchester United has contributed a lot in the context of the social cultural factors as it employs players from different parts of the world. They normal select stars from different leagues and employ them. From a research done by Masterman, Manchester is the leading club in the payment package they offer to its employees. Business strategy The team has carried research concerning their pr oduct development in the market. This is very important as it will help the team to improve their performance in their product in the present market before strategizing on how to enter the new market.Conclusion Manchester United is the leading team in the football industry and to maintain this position, they have to focus on the market and the needs of its clients and followers. The company has further improved on their product through carrying research; these improvements have brought success in the club and improve the support of the team. The board of directors has also done their best by employing the best players to represent the club. This will make the team to perform well in the field whenever they have a game. Furthermore, these directors ensure that the discipline is well maintained n the company because the fans and its competitors are closely watching what is going on in the company. Bibliography ? Andrews, D. L. (2004) Manchester United: a thematic study. Routledge: UK. Barthold, D. 2009. The Business of European Football. GRIN Verlag, (3). Pp 36-38 Masterman, G. 2009. Strategic Sports Event Management: Olympic Edition Hospitality, Leisureand Tourism Series. Butterworth-Heinemann, (2). Pp 65-67 Manchester United. 2008. The Official Manchester United Annual 2009 Official Manchester Read more: http://www. ukessays. com/essays/business/manchester-united. php#ixzz2O7qrNL7L

Change Management in Delta Airlines Research Paper

Change Management in Delta Airlines - Research Paper Example The next portion of the project would be dealing with the diagnosis of the business conditions of Delta Airlines. This part would be discussing the mission and vision statement of the company followed by its objectives and business strategies. The third part of the project would reflect change management within the organization by an implementation of Kotter’s eight-step approach. The Eight Step Model of Kotter is one of the most popular models for scheduling, implementing and finally sustaining a change process. Company Overview As already discussed above, Delta Airlines is a popular American Airline whose headquarter is located in Atlanta, United States (Federal Aviation Administration, 2013). This airline generally operates both international and domestic networks having its service routes in all the continents excepting Antarctica. The company along with its subsidiaries operates more than 5000 flights regularly. The company employs 80000 employees approximately (Delta Air lines, n.d.). The hub is located at Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta International Airport, which is one of the busiest airports in the world, in terms of passenger traffic as well as the total number of takeoffs and landings. It is the sixth oldest international airline because of its foundation date. Moreover, it is one of the oldest airways in United States as well. The company is one among the 4 founding members of Sky Team Airline Alliance, the other 3 being Air France, Aeromexico and Korean Air. The company has been declared as the largest airline in the world in 2011and 2012 in terms of the total fleet size and the scheduled passenger traffic (Rediff, 2013). It has also been rewarded for becoming the second largest airline in respect of the total revenue-passenger kilometers carried in the year 2012. The Delta Connection provides regional service to the company. Diagnosis The foundation of the company is based on the reliable and safe air transportation, providing differentiated cu stomer service to the travelers or passengers. Delta Airlines leads in the airline industry for providing the best airline transportation. The company entered into the industry in the year 2013 by further strengthening its business strategies. It is continuing to improve the performance by executing strategic initiatives. While many of the competitors of the company were focusing on the restructuring efforts or the significant integration, Delta Airline undertook the strategy of advancing its market position across the globe. The innovative business strategies of Delta Airlines (including the re-branding technique) have helped the company in strengthening its position in the world. The acquisition of Northwest Airlines proved to be one of the successful business strategies for the company. This strategy helped the company in reshaping the business goals. In past few years, the company has taken various steps in improving its balance sheet, expanding its operations by getting into gl obal partnership, investment in airlines, such as Virgin Atlantic and finally purchasing oil refinery. It increased its flexibility in these two years in order to reduce its flaws and strengthen the market reputation. However, the launch of the company’s song as a low cost airline followed by its ‘codeshare agreement’ with the Northwest Airlines and the Continental Airlines initiated the declining phase of Delta Airways.  Ã‚  

Personal Professional Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Personal Professional Development - Essay Example Correspondingly, my linguistic skills have enhanced my abilities to handle the linguistic labours. With enhanced experiences and skills, I am able to handle difficult issues that are likely to arise during my course of operation. My previous experiences gained from different courses in my career and educational life has enhanced my qualities to learn from operations and work with team. Psychometric test enhances the ability to measures my skills and even provides me with a guided framework to identify my major weaknesses. The scores attained from the psychometric tests have assisted in identifying my skill sets and develop the same. Furthermore, the psychometric tests that I have undergone have enhanced my skills to work out my weaknesses and develop my ability to meet with the changing needs of the present professional environment (Jenkins, 2001). The psychometric analysis of the tests I have undergone reflects that I have a high score on the index. This even reflects that I have a greater accuracy towards understanding a problem. The verbal score I have achieved is 97 percentile, which depicts that I have a good communication skill. In addition, the verbal score signifies that I have the ability to communicate effectively as compared to others. With the overall assessments of the different tests, I have identified to possess satisfactory level of innovativeness. I can think critically and develop my abilities to meet with a given problem in an efficient manner. I can even effectively develop an accurate understanding of the different problems by justifying the factors related to the problems witnessed. Furthermore, with an increased ability to efficiently handle and develop well-presented communication ability, I am able to develop a better interpersonal relationship and even prevent situations of conflicts. The added advantage that I have obtained from the test is my literacy rate that is even likely to enhance my ability to cater

Human resources and employment rights Literature review

Human resources and employment rights - Literature review Example Providing value and respect to employees can help the organization to avoid several workplace issues regarding employment rights (Bach, 2003, pp.11-13). The study will provide a theoretical framework about the issues arising to several HR practitioners regarding various employment rights. Literature Review Several global organizations face significant challenges due to the regulation on unfair employee dismissal. According to these rules and regulation, an employer cannot simply terminate the employees based on several unethical reasons. Traditionally, employers recruit new employees based on the competency of the employees and several organizational policies. It is true that several workplace hazards can reduce the ability or physical competency of the employees. In this case, it is the moral right of the employees to expect employment. Few organizations used to terminate them with minimum compensation due to their reduced ability and competency. This issue can hamper the workplace environment of the organization as it can minimize the motivation level of the other employees. According to Gennard and Judge (2005), government of several countries have introduced several legal HR policies in terms of employment rights in order to provide justice to these disabled employees (Gennard and Judge, 2005, p.198). According to Daniels (2004), OECD countries collaboratively have developed employment protection regulation in order to protect the existing jobs of employees (Daniels, 2004, p.22). According to employment protection law, it is the right of all qualified and suitable employees to enjoy several aspects of employments. Old employees or several disable employees cannot be terminated for the sake of low performance and productivity. Several organizations have faced critical challenges due to this issue. Decision to terminate an employee can create huge legal risk for the employers. This employee termination activity needs to fulfil the policy of employment. Severa l workplace conflicts, such as religion, gender, race, ages, disability and national origin issues can violate the organizational culture which can reduce the performance of organization. The HR practitioners can face several issues related to employment rights. Making inadequate, disparaging and false comments about employees can create serious conflict. Inadequate employee or workforce management and emotional distress of employees will violate the employment protection law. In this case, the employees have the right to file a legal case against the management or the organization. According to Bone (2004), violation of privacy of the employees is strictly restricted (Bone, 2004, p.38). In terms of old employees, it is true that the old employees cannot provide similar physical performance comparing to the young and enthusiastic employees. Under the Medical and Family Leave Act, the employees have the right to take leave against appropriate claims. In addition, the employers of the organizations or the HR managers are bound to provide leaves to these employees if the claims are reasonable. HR practitioner cannot terminate them or cut their salary based on these aspects. However, several global organizations are facing various legal issues regarding employment rights. An employer cannot terminate an employee without proper and thorough investigation. In either case, the particular employee can sue the organization legally. If the

Contemporary Human Resourse Management Research Essay

Contemporary Human Resourse Management Research - Essay Example While professionalization of the HR practice has been encouraged through certification programmes such as CIPD, the HR specialists need to add to their attributes to become worthy of the label of being a professional. A model of growth, contribution and enjoyment is what the HR specialists need to focus on. Challenges for the HR specialists Driven by numerous internal and external forces, HR management has expanded its activities from functional and administrative tasks to more strategic functions and aligning its functions and activities with the strategic goals of the organisation. A strategic partner should be able to create a positive impact on the organisation’s performance. The process view of HRM also known as HR system strength or HRS focuses on how the HR function communicates with the employees, not on what it communicates (Rebeiro, Coelho & Gomes, 2011). The HR practitioners are responsible for overall performance in two ways. They shape the skills, attitudes and be haviour of the entire workforce in the organisation which in turn impacts the organisational performance. Again, the HR practitioners can also have a direct impact on performance by creating structural and operational efficiencies which facilitates the organisation to implement strategies consistent with their goals. This approach requires a strategic fit between the HR practices and the organisational strategy for enhanced performance. HRS has a direct impact on improving behaviour. When messages are communicated to the employees in a clear, consistent and distinct way horizontal fit has been achieved. Organisational culture also impacts the outcome of HR practices. Thus, HR practices and their outcome cannot be considered in isolation because several factors contribute towards its success or failure. Realizing the challenges posed by the changed business environment, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) reframed its professional standards and introduced the concept of the â€Å"thinking performer† (Higgins & Zhang, 2009). The â€Å"thinking performer† is an ideal HR practitioner that adds value to their organisation as they are capable of and constantly willing to challenge the way things are executed. The â€Å"thinking performer† is a â€Å"strategic activist† who has the capability to challenge the status quo and demand more from what is currently being delivered by the people in the organisation. CIPD has been attempting to upgrade the personnel management towards strategic issues. This has become essential in light of the fact that most HR practitioners do not engage in strategic issues or challenge how things are being done. However, this too has to be handled in a way that other employees do not feel estranged if the entire focus is shifted towards strategic issues. This is perhaps what Pook (2001) means when he contends that HR development and organisational development are intertwined. People make a n organisation and their knowledge and capabilities are a resource that has to be used for achieving strategically defined results. Much of the business generating activity also depends upon employee loyalty and identification with the organisation. In other words people are both drivers and inhibitors of change and development. Therefore attracting and retaining the right

Capitalism and Socialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Capitalism and Socialism - Essay Example The table below pinpoints the differences between the forms of capitalism based on the institutional characteristics; An example of a ‘humane’ capitalist country is Germany. Such capitalist countries get referred to as ‘humane’ due to the characteristic of their institutional set up. As much as their capitalist economies get based on profit making, accumulation, and direct competition; these economies value their human population through their institutional set up (Soskice & Hall 65). ‘Humane’ capitalist economy setup aims at attaining equitable income distribution for each individual in the economy. They try to create a sustainable and equitable economic environment for every player to make their contributions through their policies. ‘Humane’ capitalist economies gear their policies towards efficient service delivery for the people. An example of a ‘brutal’ capitalist economy is the United States. Such countries get considered as ‘brutal’ as they advocate for direct competition among its economy players. This competition leaves a percentage of the population vulnerable to poverty (Soskice & Hall 123). ‘Brutal’ capitalism represents a man eat man society where the more an individual has, the more the individual is likely to accumulate more and take part in the economy. ‘Brutal’ capitalist countries are more likely to place profits over the people. A ‘humane’ and ‘brutal’ capitalism cannot exist together. This is so because if they do, then it would revert to the general capitalist economy which contains strains of both forms of capitalism (Soskice & Hall 133). These forms of capitalism cannot compete directly but rather, indirectly. Einstein argues for a socialist future over capitalism. This is so as Einstein believed that a socialist future would help cure the evils of capitalism. He suggests that there be a socialist economy

Sodium sulfite Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sodium sulfite - Essay Example 001) Sodium Sulfite is used for preserving meat, sea food, biscuit dough and preventing food discoloration in wines, light colored fruits and vegetables such as dried apples and dehydrated potatoes. According to Magnuson (1997) the definition adopted by the United States government a food additive is "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food." According to this definition any substance that is used in the process of preserving, packaging, storing, treatment and transportation are referred to as food additives. Additives are divided into two categories, direct and indirect. Direct additives are the ones that are added to the food for some particular purpose. Indirect additives are the ones that become part of food during processing, packaging and storing. In that case sodium sulfite comes in the category of direct additives since it is purposely added to the food for preservation and preventing discoloration. According to the Magnuson (1997) additives are used in food for five main purposes. They are for maintaining product consistency, to increase or preserve nutritional value, to preserve palatability and wholesomeness, to provide alkalinity and to improve the flavor or preserving color. Sodium Sulfite is added to the foods as an antioxidant for preservation and preventing discoloration. It acts as an antimicrobial agent in wine making since it does not disturb the development of yeast and inhibits bacterial growth. Its concentration in finished wine is calculated to be up till 6mmol/L (Mitsuhashi et al, 2001). There are certain rules and regulations related to the use of sulfites in food. FDA has disallowed the use of sulfites in foods that are rich in thiamin, for example enriched flour since it destroys the thiamin. In general majority of the people have no problem with the normal consumption of sulfite.

Globalization and Its Enemies Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Globalization and Its Enemies - Article Example There are various debates regarding the origin, driving forces, and transformative powers of transformation (Guttal 523). Supporters and critics of globalization have agreed that advancement in technology and communication have made globalization possible. For instance, banking institutions in Britain are able to reach and communicate with their counterparts in Asia, America and other parts of the world. Further, internet allows currencies to be traded worldwide. There is disagreement on the powers, natures, and origins of globalization (Guttal 523). Is it civilizing or destructive? Is it politically neutral or ideologically driven? Some people argue that globalization is driven by greed and interest to accumulate and control material wealth, for which capitalism provides a rational operational framework and ideology. They argue that globalization is a concept invented to favor the elite. In their views, factors such as global migration from one country to another have led to increas ed security lapses (Guttal 524). They have attributed globalization to environmental degradation, which has resulted to the sprouting of slums in developing countries. Critics of globalization insist that globalization has resulted to uneven distribution of the wealth, which has resulted to selective economic booms in the world. They view globalization as capitalist process that has its origins far back as the industrial revolution era in Europe and has grown since the disintegration of the soviet union as a suitable form of economic organization. Globalization is a force of capitalist expansion and modernization, incorporating the integration of all economic activities into the world market in order to create wealth for the nations. Guttal (524) has argued that to counter one another’s assertions about the merits and demerits of globalization, both the critics and the proponents have fronted several arguments in relation to the economic, political, and social aspects of glob alization. Aspects of the economy that are majorly associated with globalization include investment, trade, and migration. This enables traders to easily access goods and even services in a more broad way than it used to be in the past years. Further, new and expanded global opportunities boosts the global economy as different kinds of exchanges taking place between states encourages positive global competition thus resulting in simultaneous global economic growth (Guttal 524). As Guttal states in the article, critics have held that free trade posses danger to domestic industries. In addition, the concept of globalization has led to the defragmentation of the environment and job loss. They assert that by countries accepting to get into foreign and regional financial schemes, they automatically lose their financial sovereignty and in turn, embrace foreign policies that may be contrary to the unique needs of its citizens. The other view is that multinational corporations may acquire e xcessive power in a particular country, which may in return compromise the needs of the citizens in general. Proponents perceive that, globalization has played a key role especially in the political sphere an argument that has received major backing from globalization nationalists.

Descartes - First Meditation Essay Example for Free

Descartes First Meditation Essay In the First Meditation, Descartes presents his philosophical project, and he claims that, in order to complete this project, he needs to put into questions the truth of all his beliefs. Descartes shows that we can doubt of the truth of all our beliefs by two main arguments, the Dream Argument and the Evil Genius argument. In the Dream Argument, Descartes discusses the senses and how it can deceive. Descartes then mentions that when he is dreaming he can also sense real objects, or at least feels he can, causing him not be able to distinguish between being asleep and being awake. This is shown in the quote from the First Meditation, â€Å"I see so plainly that there are no definitive signs by which to distinguish being awake from being asleep. As a result, I am becoming quite dizzy, and this dizziness nearly convinces me that I am asleep† (19, Mediation One). Descartes also discusses the possibility of the universal dream, mentioning that his whole life could in fact be a dream with no actual world that you are awake. Descartes mentions that dream images are images that we already experience in our waking life, they are images that we already know of. The images don’t necessarily have to be something we have seen before because it can be parts of real things we already know that create another image we have not yet seen or experienced. The dream argument that Descartes represents interprets the message that the senses are not always reliable, and we can easily be fooled by them, therefore, we should not rely on our senses to base all of our beliefs on. Now moving on to Descartes second argument, the Evil Genius argument, it implies that everything we think we know is in fact not true and we cannot rely on our senses. In The First Meditation, Descartes presents that God is good, therefore he would not fool the beings he creates into believing false things. If someone were to believe in this suggestion then he would know that he can’t be fooled by anything. This is shown in Descartes quote â€Å"But perhaps God has not willed that I be deceived in this way, for he is said to be supremely good. Nonetheless, if it were repugnant to his goodness to have created me such that I be deceived all the time, it would also seem foreign to that same goodness to permit me to be deceived even occasionally† (21 Meditation One). On the other hand, Descartes mentions that there are some people who believe there is no God, if this is the point of view to be taken then there would be a very big likelihood in us being deceived. The reason for this theory is due to the argument Descartes presents that if there is no good our senses would not be perfect since it would not have been created by a perfect being, such as God. This is shown in Descartes quote, â€Å"But because being deceived and being mistaken appear to be a certain imperfection, the less powerful they take the author of my origin to be, the more probable it will be that I am so imperfect that I am always deceived† (21 Mediation One). In the end of the First Meditation, Descartes sees it as impossible to stop from thinking about these theories, he then tries to believe that his opinions are not true. Descartes does this for the reason to be able to keep thinking as normal without disruptions. Descartes mentions this in his quote, â€Å"Hence, it seems to me I would do well to deceive myself by turning my will in completely the opposite directions and pretend for a time that these opinions are wholly false and imaginary† (22 Meditation One). Descartes then concludes that an evil genius has set out to deceive him so everything he thinks he knows is not true, â€Å"I will not suppose a supremely good God, the source of truth, but rather an evil genius, supremely powerful and clever, who has directed his entire effort at deceiving me† (22 Mediation One). With Descartes doubting all his beliefs he makes sure that he is not led to believe in what is not real by the so called â€Å"evil genius† he mentions in the First Meditation. In regards to the question, does Descartes appear to be a sceptic? I would have to say no, the reason I say this is although Descartes does appear to be a sceptic in all his arguments, he demonstrates theories to all his doubts. When Descartes represents a reason for his doubt this cannot be viewed a scepticism anymore as scepticism as defined is the philosophical position according to which knowledge is impossible. Descartes represents knowledge on each topic he doubts, as to why it should be doubted and for what reasons. Descartes does not constantly doubt everything for no reason, a sceptic doubts everything around them for no reason whatsoever. To prove this argument I suggested we can look at the First Meditation when Descartes denies the thought that he might be insane, which is shown in his quote, â€Å"Unless perhaps I were to liken myself to the insane, but such people are mad, and I would appear no less mad, were I to take their behavior as an example for myself† (19 Meditation One). In this quote it proves that all the doubts Descartes is making in the First Meditation are logical, and provide reason. Descartes is not just doubting for the sake of doubting, but for logic that causes this doubt he is experiencing. This concludes that Descartes is not a sceptic, and his arguments in fact to continue to grow, while maintaining logical reason behind them.

Compare And Contrast Two Policy Areas Economics Essay

Compare And Contrast Two Policy Areas Economics Essay There is a debate on what the most appropriate method for a policy formulation, weather the policy cycle model or the Kingdons garbage can model. Different policy areas may be a product of different policy processes. In reality, it can be seen that some policies may take long time to be ready to implement while other issues capture policy makers attention and put in place shortly (Tiernan and Burke 2002, 86). The argument of this paper is that in the implementation of policy-making, while the characteristics of the policy cycle model and the Kingdons garbage-can model may appear together, there may actually be only one model which would manifest itself or dominate to policy making process. The writer will use two different policy areas to demonstrate this argument. This paper will have structures as follows; firstly, it will compare the concepts of policy cycle model and garbage can approach which is preceded by the definition of public policy. Secondly, it will describe the implementation of the policy cycle model on the Indonesian government policy on the elimination of trade tariffs on imported goods from Japan. This regulation is an implementation of the Agreement on Economic Partnership between the Indonesian government and Japan. Thirdly, it will describe the implementation of the garbage can model on the Indonesian government action on emergency response on the Situ Gintung Dam disaster in 2009 in Indonesia. Lastly, it will summarise the main points of the paper and restate the main argument. Several scholars provide different definitions of public policy. However, this paper will use one of them as a starting point in comparing the policy making models in two different policy areas as mentioned above. Public policy is about what government concerns to address public issues and increase public welfare. Colebatch (1998, 2006 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 5) defines public policy as whatever governments choose to do or not to do. This definition deduces several possibilities of what government will do when there is problem in public. Government may solely address the problems; may let other actors to solve the problems with government regulations; may work with other actors to solve the problems; or may do nothing at all. For example, regarding the issue of decreasing on the education quality in secondary school, to address this problem, government may review policy on education system and increase public school quality. Other example to on what government n ot to do is in the case on the privatisation of transport service providers which is projected to increase efficiency and reduce government spending. In comparing two models of policy formulation, the writer identifies several different characteristics of the two models. The first characteristic of policy cycle is the use of rational measurement. Proponents of policy cycle argue that a series of rational stages allows policy cycle works based on embedded rationalism (Bridgman and Davis 2003, p. 98). However, the opponent criticises that a good policy needs more than an effective process good policy entails good content and good content does not necessarily result from an effective process (Everett 2003, p. 67). To respond this criticism, Bridgman and Davis (2003, p. 101) use Driors point of view that alternative solutions are tested against the objectives to gain one rational decision while policy cycle presumes that there is no such outcome. It goes on that the stages in policy cycle are a logical process in terms that each step has a result for the next step, but it does not embody formal rationality (Bridgman and Davis 2003, p . 101). Moreover, Davis et al. (1993, p. 160-1 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, 59) underline rational comprehensive model which follows a logical, ordered sequence and comprehensive because it canvasses, assesses and compares all options. It seems that both sides, the proponents and the opponent, look weather policy cycle rational or not from different perspective which makes them come to different ends. However, in writer perspective they all are right. The stages of policy cycle model can assist policy makers to do their jobs because the stages can be broken down. However, Everett (2003, p. 67) claims that policy cycle cant resolve controversial or contentious issues or replace political contest. To address this doubt Bridgman and Davis (2003, p. 101) argue that most of government activities are routine and only a few which is unusual. In writers concern, although government does routine activity but issues change along the time and the office work history sometimes is not sufficient to portray the issues. Therefore, this model does not much help decision makers. It is claimed that consultation stage in policy cycle model enhances policy formulation for a better implementation. The opponent of this idea, Everett (2003, p. 67) claims that community consultation fails to address issues related to political contest. It goes that community consultation only results little more than a wish list rather than solution. To address this doubt, Bridgman and Davis (2003, p. 101) argue that political interest does not always burden the government routine, however, if so, typical follows the same process to make less contentious issues. In this point, the writer agrees that community consultation is a step forward to open democracy although it cant provide satisfying solution for all. This model will be more appropriate for a routine policy because it takes time following the stages. Turning to the garbage can model, it is believed that this model has different approach with the conventional model of policy making. Kingdons garbage-can model rejects the policy cycle approach by arguing that policy formulation happens within organisation which has characterised by uncertain or different policy interest, unclear internal rules and unstable participation patterns (Cohen et al. 1972, p.1; Howard 1998; Davis et al. 1993, p. 173 cited in Tiernan and Burke 2002, p. 87). Furthermore, Tiernan and Burke (2002, p. 87) explain that the Kingdons garbage-can theory are antithesis of rational decision making approach. This model is appropriate to address issues which need quick response because it does not follow many stages. For example, in combating terror actions, decision makers have to make quick decision and take actions. Sometimes trial and error strategy works in such a chaotic situation. According to Kingdon (cited in Zahariadis 1999, p. 76) decision making works through three streams, namely, problems, politics and policies. Problems may attract policy makers to find solutions or problem leads to solution. For example, the oil spill disaster in the Gulf of Mexico on 20 April 2010. It may capture policy makers attention to formulate a regulation to give huge tax and royalty to oil industries in order to reduce the reliance on oil and shift to alternative fuel (British Petroleum 2010, online) . Political stream involves the contention of pressure group campaign, interest groups, administrative and legislative, judicial, executive. Policy stream revolves around wide range of ideas generated by policy communities, networks and researchers (Zahariadis 1999, pp. 76-77). Issues will capture policy makers attention when they are in the three streams at the same time. Kingdon (1995, p. 165 cited in Zahariadi 1999, p. 77) calls these conditions as policy window. Furthermore, he explains that when policy window opens, which is unpredictably, policy entrepreneurs have opportunity to orchestra to promote their position in the future. In order to compare the two models above, the writer breaks down the first case study into the stages according to the policy cycle model in the Australian government. To start with, Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, pp. 37-40) maintain that the Australian policy cycle comprises of the phases of identifying issues, policy analysis, policy instruments, consultation, coordination, decision, implementation and evaluation. The relationship among those stages will be described together with case study on the policy on elimination of trade tariffs on imported goods from Japan (the Ministry of Finance Regulation number 95/PMK.011/2008). The writer applies the policy cycle model with an assumption that this model is appropriate for developing policy in a normal condition in term of government routine activities. The implementation of policy cycle concepts for developing regulation on trade tariffs. The first stage of policy cycle normally begins with defining problems. This is mentioned by Parsons (1995, p. 81) who argues that stages of policy cycle starts from defining problem and agenda setting, implementation and up to evaluation. The same idea is disclosed by Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p 38) who contend that much policy begins with identifying issues. However, in writer perspective, it may start from other stage when there is no public issue, but government want to change its policy. Furthermore, it is believed that an effective policy requires overhaul because of more information occur during its formulation process (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p 38). These proponents agree that this model allows policy maker to review the previous steps when there is a new finding which may influence the success of policy implementation. Regarding the policy on eliminating trade tariffs barrier between the government of Indonesia and Japan, the idea was emerged by the Indonesian President and Japan Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi during the Asia Pacific Economic Countries (APEC) Summit Meeting in November 2004. The two leaders agreed to tighten the economic relationship between two countries. In writers concern, the meeting between two countries leaders refers to the Kingdons Garbage-can theory, as actors who enforce selected alternative solution (Kingdon 1995, p.116 cited in Tiernan and Burke 2002, p.88). Follow up meeting was held on December 2004 between the Minister of economic, Trade and Industry from the two countries to discuss about a Joint Study Group to explore future possibility to an Economic Partnership between the two countries. Another meeting was conducted between the Indonesian Vice President and Japan Minister of foreign Affair in January 2005 which planned to hold a three round meeting in April 2005. This meeting recommended a negotiation on bilateral economic partnership agreement. A three round meeting was conducted in Bali, Jakarta and Tokyo. The meeting was attended the representative of related departments, agencies, academic and private sectors from two countries. These meetings discussed a wide range issues about the economic relationship particularly on the possibility to increase the benefits from the economic partnership. The last issue is that Japan has been the largest country for goods export destination from Indonesia and vice versa. Other things are that Indonesia is an important energy exporter to Japan, while Japan is the largest provider official development assistance for Indonesia (Join Study Group Report 2005, p. 4). Since the Asian economic crisis 1997, the direct investment from Japan declined although it was noted that Japan was the highest foreign investor in Indonesia with 19.7 % accumulated during 1967 2004 (Join Study Group Report 2005, p. 3). This is also supported by OECDs survey which noted that Japan was the highest investor in Asia from 1982 1997 (Japan Ministry of Finance cited in Thomsen 1999, pp. 12-13). But, these indicators are only a symptomatic of the real issues. As Lindblom (1968, p. 13) indicates that policy makers are not faced with a given problem. Therefore, in writers concern the real problems are that the economic crisis 1997 had weakened Indonesian to buy domestic metal-based products which have imported components (from Japan). The next stage of policy cycle is policy analysis. In this stage, policy analysts work based on the information gathered in relation with the identified issues. According to Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 38) policy analysis refers to the debates of public servants with the related professionals and experts in order to formulate information to decision makers. In relation with the issues of declining Japan investment and enhancing domestic metal-based industries above, the debate was held in the Department of Economic, Trade and Industry, involving the economists and the Indonesian Chamber of Commerce as representative of private sector. During this stage, policy analysts seek appropriate model to increase to make the goods are affordable to public. Economists may employ cost benefit analysis to reduce the goods price in order to support domestic industries. Alternatively, analysts may apply incremental rationality approach to reduce the trade tariffs rate gradually while hopi ng for positive impacts on the public and industries. In writers perspective, policy analysts work under Kingdons Garbage-can approach in selecting formulations of sequential post tariffs which have to be eliminated during the period of 2009 until 2012. The following step of policy cycle is choosing what policy instrument to be used, whether a policy need a new legislation or change programs or adjustment in the operational level. Selecting appropriate policy instruments is essential to a success of public policy because each instrument has its limitation. Drawing from Hoods classifications, the Australian public policy instrument is classified into advocacy, network, money, government action, and law (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 89). Each instrument has different capability to achieve policy goals. Some policies do not need to be in the form of legislation products. For example, to control the use of electricity, government may apply different rate for a certain level of power unit used. Otherwise, government may suggest publics to reduce electricity consumption through a campaign or subsidy. Regarding the information resulted by policy analysts in the Department of Economic, Trade and Industry, the Indonesian government chose law as instrument to implement policy on trade tariffs. According to the Government Decision no 42/2002, all public revenues should be regulated under the Minister of Finance regulation (Government of Indonesia 2002, President Decision no. 42/2002, article 2). Therefore, the policy on eliminating trade tariffs should be under the Minister of Finance decisions. However, the Indonesian government has to issue a decree as a base of ministerial decisions. There are two kinds of consultation, inside and outside organisation. The Minister of Finance conducts inside consultation through open debate and interactive with public in television broadcasting. Participants come from automotive industries owners, economists, and publics. In this session, the Ministry of Finance sough input and support from public regarding the proposal to eliminate trade tariffs gradually. The idea to hold public consultation is supported by Smith (2005, p. 30 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 89) who argues that open forum will enable different groups to express and learn the alternatives and give responses as a process of public deliberation. Another consultation session was conducted in legislation forum. Practically, an issue often captures the attention of legislative members which then call for clarification ministers. It is a formal and scrutiny session because as it is held between parliament members (the Commission IX) and the Ministry of Fi nance as government representative. The perception of legislative member will be considered by the Ministry of Finance to finalise the policy. Alternatively, policy makers can apply e-Consultation to reach a wider public participation. As McNutt (2006 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 117) argues that virtual policy networks will provide collaboration and coordination through online technology. The next stage of policy cycle is conducting coordination throughout the department or agencies. Developing policy needs coordination in order to develop coherence, consistency, and effectiveness when it comes to policy implementation. It is essential to build coordination because departments and agencies have their own functions (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, pp. 124-125). An example for this point is, in Indonesia, the Ministry of Finance holds important role on allocating budget to all departments and agencies. Furthermore, Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 129) explain that coordination starts from agencies submit proposal to government to allow other department provide opinions about the programs against the existing programs administered by other agencies. From this process, central agency may make a review on the proposals. This step applies the concept of Whole of Government approach in terms of synchronizing program of with overall agency activities (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 131). In assessing the proposal, central agency employs routine standards to assess the consistency of programs with other government objectives. In the case of eliminating trade tariffs barrier, Directorate General of International Trade Affair through the Ministry of Economic, Trade and Industry submit the proposal to the Ministry of Finance. The Ministry of Finance asses the proposal in financial perspective the impact from eliminating trade tariffs to public revenue in budget statement. The information about revenue from the tariffs in the previous budget is valuable to predict the loss and to find its replacement. The Minister of Finance projects the implication of the regulation to the other sectors and make coordination with related departments and agencies, such as, employment sectors under the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration; taxation income from the increase of domestic industries in steel-based commodity under with the Ministry of Finance; the increase in fuel consumption as the effect of emerging industrial sector under the Minister of Mines and Energy. Coordination is essential for policy alignment. The argument is that support from interest groups, in this case is importers, company owners and civil servants in customs office, is important to the success of these regulations. When the regulations are implemented there will be many irresponsible actors who take advantage from the weaknesses of the regulation. Indeed, by issuing regulation on elimination trade tariffs on a certain goods, the opportunists will manipulate documents on other goods to get benefits. Decisions are formally made by parliament but sometimes policy only need government regulations. In the policy cycle, decision is an important key for the previous stages. Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 144) suggests that the proposal resulted from all sequential efforts are decided in this stage whether will be considered as a policy or not in the future. Furthermore, in cabinet arena, ministers have opportunity to act collectively to consider policy proposals before they are implemented. In the case of regulation on eliminating trade tariffs above, the Minister of Finance has promulgated the Minister of Finance regulation number 95/PMK.011/ 2008 dated 30 June 2008 (Observation and Research Taxation 2010, online). This regulation in the implementation of the Government of Indonesia Regulation number 36/2008 on legalisation of Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and Japan for an Economic Partnership (IJ-EPA). Policy implementation is the next stage after decision has been made in policy cycle. The outcome of regulation is often far from the expectation. The gap often becomes new issues in the public which often interesting for opposition groups. As noted by Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 159) that the failure of implementation will be use for the opponents and media to show the government weaknesses. Furthermore, they suggest that to avoid the failure, policy proposal should be examine well in every stage of policy cycle before submission to cabinet. The proponents of policy cycle emphasize the scrutiny on every step of policy analysis. Regarding the implementation of regulation on trade tariffs, there are many actors involve as policy guardian. In the bottom level of bureaucracy, customs officers stand in front line to maintain this regulation. As goods are imported through the sea, sea-port customs officers are often as culprits of breaches. However, other actors, such as interest groups (company owners and importers) also play pivotal role. Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 160) argue that the failure in policy implementation is because of government agencies lack of sufficient expertise and resources. The writer agrees with this perspective, however, in Indonesian public administration, it is worsen by unclear borders between public administrators, police department, and army in policy implementation. Indeed, their functions are by far different. That is why public policy often failure in implementation. Evaluation stage is the end and restart of policy cycle (Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007, p. 179). Furthermore, evaluation provides three purposes; it questions how well a policy meets objectives in its implementation; it examines public servants accountability to their tasks; it suggests critical points to future policy refinement. However, evaluation often faces obstacles. Anderson (2005, p. 271-5 cited in Althaus, Bridgman and Davis (2007, p. 189) claim that obstacles may consists of uncertainty over policy goals, difficulty in determining causality, diffuse policy impacts, difficulty in data acquisition, resistance, and a limited time perspective. In Indonesian public administration, the actors of policy evaluation on elimination of trade tariffs are, the Inspectorate General on the Ministry of Finance in collaboration with the Financial Audit Board. Moreover, supervisors in customs offices hold essential roles to the success of this regulation. The Inspectorate General has annual schedule evaluations to make sure all organisation functions are run well. In the writer perception, policy evaluation has to be comprehensive. It does not only evaluate the implementation of a policy, but also concern to wider impacts of a policy. The result of evaluation may be as inputs for other public policy. Indeed, regulation on eliminating trade tariffs has impacts on some aspects, such as, financial aspect, relates to revenue shifting from trade tariffs on imported goods to value added tax of steel industries; economic aspect, relates to economic growth on domestic industries; employment aspect, relates to job opportunity and unemployment ra te reduction; environmental aspect, relates to the increase of fuel consumption on industry and automotive sectors, decreasing air and water quality from emission. However, the Indonesian government often fail to do this. Overall, the stages in policy cycle concern to develop a good policy through a scrutiny process in clear frameworks. It helps policy makers to understand the policy process in different functions. This model is able to break down complex issues into manageable stages. It is a normative suggestion on sequence stages for policy making approach. However, this model takes times and money because of the long process. From the example above, it can be seen that the stage of identifying issue happened in 2004 and 2005 whereas the implementation of the policy started in 2008. Turning to the implementation of the Kingdons Garbage-can model, as mentioned above there are three streams problems, policies, and politics to develop agenda change. Public issues might occur from one of the streams, otherwise coupling three streams. Kingdon (1995, p.88 cited in Tienman and Burke 2002, p. 88; see also Kingdon 1995, p. 165 cited in Zahariadi 1999, p.77) describes policy windows opens when three streams converge to push issues to get solutions. A case study on government action in addressing the disaster of the Situ Gintung Dam in 2009 will demonstrate how the Garbage-can model formulates policy through three streams. The problems stream the burst of Situ Gintung dam greatly captures decision makers attention to push the government to take real actions. Although the disaster had been predicted since 2008, there was lack of government action to prevent it (Indonesias Urban Studies 2009, online). The Situ Gintung dam is located in Cirendeu, Ciputat subdistrict, Tangerang district, Banten Province, Indonesia. After the disaster happened on 27 March 2009, the Indonesian government in collaboration with non-governmental organisations found 99 death bodies and searched thousand people missing (Antara News 2009, online). Regardless the causing factors of the collapse of the dam, the disaster has led decision maker to push government action. Tiernan and Burke (2002, p. 88) argues that problems and issues draw government attention in form of systemic indicators or public attentions. Furthermore, Anderson (1994 cited in Tiernan and Burke (2002, p. 88) claims that the way how to identify problems will determine government response to place in agenda setting. It is evidence that the Situ Gintung disaster resulted public attention and systemic problems. Besides creating human victims, it degrades environment quality and reduces economic and social factors. Such as, the number of houses and areas destroyed by the food from the dam burst (Indonesia Matters 2009, online). This issue enables policy entrepreneurs to open windows of opportunity to create linkage between problems, policies and politics streams. This idea is underlined by Kingdon (1995 cited in Zahariadi 1999, p. 77) who contends that policy windows are opened by inducing problems or by event in political stream. Indeed, the impacts of this disaster attracts policy entrepreneurs to collaborate problems, interest groups, environmentalists, public opinion, executive, legislative members, to define policy solutions. As Kingdon (1995, p. 88 cited in Tiernan and Burke 2002, p. 88) argues that problem is identified, solution is available, and the political climate supports to take action. It is evidence that the disaster happened before the general election 2009, where political actors seek votes from public in several ways in public. In response to the disaster of the Situ Gintung dam, in policy stream, the proposal of emergency response is implemented in trial and error concept. For example, event everything needs to be addressed quickly, government may receive unreliable data of victims about who, what and how, they should be addressed. It will be difficult to provide settlements, foods and other basic needs appropriately. Therefore, decision makers often work according to their own perspectives and assumptions. Kingdon (1995, p. 116 cited in Tiernan and Burke 1999, p.88) explains that policy proposal is floating like the metaphor of the the policy primeval soup. Policy proposal may or may not be directed towards solving substantive problems. In politics stream, policy proposal is revealed by national moods, pressure group campaigns, and administrators (Zahariadi, 1999, p. 77). Administrators accommodate public voice to formulate alternative solutions. For example the impacts from debris floods will increase the vulnerability of the area to many diseases. Therefore, government has to clean up the area by mobilising personnel on the Department of Health and the Department of Public Work. However, the writer believes that the occurrence of environmental, economic and social problems resulted from this disaster, will capture policy makers attention to propose regulation upon these issues. In this point, the concept of policy cycle will appear to finalised policies related to this issue. For example, in addressing social problems on the displaced citizens, policy makers may employ the concept of policy cycle method. Policy makers will start to identify problems, why they have to live close to the river streams; analyse the problems and propose alternative solution; seek policy appropriate instruments which can works; conduct consultation with public and internal government; hold coordination with related agencies, for example the Ministerial of Social affairs and the Ministry of Peoples Welfare; make a decision through legislation or government regulation; implement the decisions and evaluate the implementations. The two case studies above explain that in addressing public issues, policy makers possibly implement the two models of policy formulation although there is only one policy model which is dominate. However, the writer underlines that an issue may lead to another issues which need to be addressed comprehensively. In formulation a public policy, the two models of policy formulation, the policy cycle model and the Kingdons Garbage-can model may be implemented, but only one model will manifested itself. To sum up, there are two models for policy formulation, the policy cycle model and the Kingdons Garbage-can model. Both theories have strength and weaknesses. On one hand, policy cycle is frameworks for policy makers to understand policy formulation as a process rather than just a set of institutions. This model is able to disaggregate phenomena into manageable steps. In every stage, policy makers demonstrate their knowledge to find alternative solution in a logic sequence. Policy cycle serves as guidance for policy makers in formulating policies. This model is a normative suggestion and defending the view that a particular sequence is an appropriate way to approach the policy task. However, this model has weaknesses in term of time completion of a policy cycle. On the other hand, the Kingdons Garbage-can model which is developed from the ideas of Cohen, March and Olsen, provide critiques to the rational decision-making model (Hill 2009, p. 156). There are three streams in the agenda setting and alternative generation, problem stream, policies stream and politics stream. The three streams may result policy independently, otherwise in some critical moment there is multiple-streams. By coupling the three streams the issues will capture more policy makers attention to make a public policy. This model considers that policy organisational is in chaotic, complex and fluid as a result of uncertain and competing policy preference. Therefore, policy-making sometimes is irrational. From the case studies above, although it needs further research, it is argued that in formulation public policy, policy makers may follow the policy cycle method and the Kingdons Garbage-can model, but there is only one model which dominate in the process.

voodoo Essays -- essays research papers fc

Could Voodoo be nothing but evil, black magic, and the work of the devil? Is voodoo really an evil religion that sacrifices humans as well as animals to the demonic Gods? When I first did my paper on Voodoo, the first thing that came to my mind was how Hollywood portrayed Voodoo. When people see something on television or at the movies, they believe it to be reality. Undoubtedly, misconceptions will occur, and unless people are shown evidence against the delusions, it will be taken as fact. I think Voodoo religion is as acceptable as Christianity or any other religion. Voodoo has been tainted from the true principals and understanding. Voodoo has been shown on screen as evil, black magic, and the work of the devil, rather than as a faith, and most people see spells cast on voodoo dolls like Chucky in Child’s Play, who goes around killing people because he is possessed (Child’s Play 1988). Is Voodoo a true, spiritual religion, and if so, are people willing to tolerate it? In today’s society, religious tolerance of different groups of people or cultures is very important. By understanding and accepting the differences of real versus imaginary using Voodoo as the prime example, people will be able to see these groups as part of actual society and not just a fictitious magical and evil portrayal in entertainment such as Child’s Play, Trilogy of Terror, and Chloe-Love is Calling You. Hollywood’s portrayals of Voodoo in movies, thus invalid. Voodoo was founded in Haiti, back when the slaves were brought in from the African homelands. African and Christianity beliefs were easily merged because they are not all that different. Both religions are similar in ways of baptism, or ritual purification. Both believe one God created all people (Hintz 95). In place of God is a Supreme Being called Bondye. He is the head loa and is very powerful. Bondye gives individuals their own destinies. He is too busy to be involved in the personal everyday lives. This is why they believe in the spirits or Loa to whom they worship and make sacrifices (Brown 6). Just like other religions, Voodoo has it’s own principles, with it’s own set of rites. The Voodoo priest is the houngan. A priestess is a mambo. A houngan religious authority is much more informal then that of a Catholic priest (Hintz 97). A priest has to answer to the bishops and the people. He has a structural church, where as ... ...uisiana. Hintz, Martin. Haiti: Enchantment of the World. New York: Children’s Press, 1998. This book is about the different kinds of religions that are practiced in Haiti. Voodoo doctors in Haiti use plants and other items for treatment. â€Å"A spider web is placed over a cut to stop the bleeding.† (98). Murray, Alexander. Who’s Who In Mythology. New York: Bonanza Books, 1989 This book gives a description of the Greek and Roman deities and how they are represented. Neusener, Jacob. World Religions in America. Kentucky: Westminster/Johnknox Press,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1994. This book is about the diversity of religions on America. Among the different religions in America we can get a sense of understanding then and their uniqueness to their culture. Smith, Houston. World’s Religions. New York: Labyrinth Publishing, 1994. This book is about â€Å"values† (11). A true understanding of the world points directly to the true understanding of the religions in the world today. Tart, Charles. Body, Mind, Spirit. Virginia: Hampton Roads, 1997. This book is about the scientific findings of spirituality and the existence of the of a soul.I haven’t had time to read much of this book.

Rates Of Reaction :: Papers

Rates Of Reaction Aim: To find out the effect of acid concentration in dilute hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon, and how much hydrogen gas is given off. Prediction: I predict that as the concentration of the hydrochloric acid increases the time taken for magnesium ribbon to dissolve will decrease. Apparatus: Saturated test tube Rubber bung Bowl water Magnesium ribbon Concentrated hydrochloric acid Plastic tube Stopwatch Conical flask Measuring cylinder The concentration of the acid is going to be my only variable. It will vary the time taken for the magnesium ribbon to dissolve into the acid. Other things that I will be using are not going to be varied these are volume of hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon. The magnesium ribbon dissolves into the hydrochloric acid because then it collides with the particles inside the hydrochloric acid. Activation energy is minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to take place. For each of the concentrations I use the activation energy will be different. If the activation energy is high then only a small amount of particles will have enough energy to react but if the activation energy is low then a lot more particles can react. The reaction will also be exothermic because it will be giving off heat and hydrogen gas. A change in concentration is a change in the number of particles in a volume. If we increase the volume the particles will collide more because they are crowded. Factors: The factors that could affect the rate of reaction are as follows: Concentration of Acid This could affect the rate of reaction because the higher that concentration of the acid the more particles there are so there is more collision per second. Temperature: If the starting temperature of the acid is different each time then the speed at which the atoms will collide will increase or decrease depending on what the temperature is.

Sexual Enlightenment :: Essays Papers

Sexual Enlightenment Introduction Throughout human history, there has always been a wide range of conflicts with nature. The earliest humans had to learn survival techniques in the wilderness, we have always felt the threat of the devastating forces of the earth like volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes, and in recent decades have even ventured into the vast wonders of outer space. The issue we are focusing on here deals with various advances in the nature of human sexuality. Sexual enlightenment produced profound changes in human society. The aspects of sexual enlightenment covered in our web site are homosexuality, pre-marital sex, sexual disease, marriage and birth control. Homosexuality has been around for a long time. We know it has been around in some form or another for most of history. It reared its head in ancient societies like the Roman Empire and has survived to make its way into our present day world. Homosexuality has experienced many changes and different levels of acceptance depending on time and place. In the past few decades, this alternative form of sexuality has seen a huge growth in popularity. Though it is not fully accepted in today's societies, advocates are always fighting for homosexual rights. It remains a topic of varying acceptance. Our second aspect of sexual enlightenment is pre-marital sex. Of the cultures, past and present, who treasure the bond of marriage (for whatever reasons), pre-marital sex has been generally looked down upon within the society. Nonetheless, we know that it has still been a frequent occurrence in many societies. People just didn't want to wait until marriage, and they sure don't want to now. Pre-marital sex remains a popular occurrence in today's societies. Thirdly, we have the enlightenment in sexually transmitted diseases. Because of relatively recent advances in science, we have been able to study diseases much more thoroughly. We can understand how they work and even find treatments for them. These diseases have been around since people have been having sexual intercourse with multiple partners (probably all of human history) since that's how they are spread. We have records of prostitution dating back to ancient times, so sexual disease must be very old.

How World War One presented in poetry by Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon Essay

A comparison of the ways in which World War One is presented by Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon in their poetry with close reference to â€Å"Dulce et Decorum est† and â€Å"Anthem for Doomed Youth† by Owen and â€Å"The General† and â€Å"Base Details† by Sassoon. * * * The First World War marked a significant turning point in poetic tradition and history by the revolutionary styles and ideas expressed by the poets. Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon are probably two of the most well known war poets and their poetry was instrumental in this change. Prior to 1914, much poetry was written about wars such as the Crimean War in 1854-56 (The Charge of The Light Brigade by Tennyson who says, â€Å"Honour the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred.) but the great majority of the poets had not experienced war first-hand. Thus, they reinforced the poetic tradition of glorifying war and death. Both Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen, who both fought through most of the First World War, use their poetry in the hope that they can give a more realistic impression of war than the pre-twentieth century poetry. Both Owen and Sassoon present World War One as unheroic, in direct contrast to pre-twentieth war poetry such as The Destruction of Sennacherib by Byron. At the very beginning of Dulce et Decorum est Owen describes the soldiers as ‘Bent double, like old beggars under sacks’. That image is the complete opposite of what we would consider to be a heroic and romantic figure, an attribute that was always given to soldiers in pre-twentieth century poetry. Owen goes on to describe the soldiers as ‘knock-kneed’ and ‘coughing like hags’. Neither of these images can be associated with the glorified, smartly dressed soldier that would be fixed in almost all of the minds of women and children back home. The comparison of the soldiers to hags is not a pleasant one as hags are often scruffy and dirty. The mention of the coughing portrays the many illnesses that soldiers suffered from in the trenches. Although both of them present war as unheroic, they do so in very different ways. The style of Owen’s poetry which is much longer and contains more description than that of Sassoon’s, allows him to expand on the simple description of the horrors of war that he experienced. In Dulce et Decorum est, he describes in graphic and horrific detail the death of a man who was not able to fit his helmet in time during a gas attack. He uses words such as ‘flound’ring’ ‘guttering, choking, drowning’. The word ‘flound’ring’ gives the impression of the helplessness of the man.The onomatopoeic effect of these words gives an image that adds relaism to the horror of war. This makes it more realistic and moreover, more chilling to read. Owen goes on, in the final stanza of this poem to describe the dead man in greater detail. His varied use of language allows him to create shocking imagery which means that the reader can visualise the man. Owen uses phrases such as: â€Å"watch the white eyes writhing in his face† and â€Å"the blood/Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs† The first of these phrases is particularly chilling as it makes the reader think of snakes writhing in his face. This gives the impression of a crazed person, driven insane by what he has seen and what he had suffered before dying. The alliteration of the ‘w’ is also effective as it emphasises the phrase. Owen wants to present the reality of the First World War and in slowing the reader down, he makes them think about what he is actually describing and change the way in which it was brushed over before World War One. The second phrase is also shocking and the use of the onomatopoeic word ‘gargling’ makes it all the more visual and makes the reader feel more chilling. This image of a man choking on his own blood because of gas is very unheroic and it is this that Owen wants to portray – the unheroic nature of war however brave the soldiers may be. This is in comparison to many pre-twentieth century war poems where they emphasise the heroic nature of war such as in a speech in Henry V where Henry says that the man who survives the battle will ‘remember with advantages what feats he did that day’, emphasising the heroic nature of war. Owen’s second poem, Anthem for Doomed Youth also presents World War One as unheroic and unromantic. The very first line of his poem epitomises Owen’s feeling about the young men sent off to war. â€Å"What passing bells for those who die as cattle?† The use of the word ‘cattle’ immediately robs all glory from the idea of war as a whole. The simile compares how cattle are slaughtered for meat to soldiers dying for their country. This is a very unheroic comparison and is effective in what it is trying to portray. On the other hand, in the two poems by Sassoon that I have chosen to discuss, Sassoon does not present World War One as unheroic. His poems, which are short and concise, deal more with the unfairness of war and protest against the generals and commanding officers. However, in The General, Sassoon briefly presents the soldiers in an unheroic way, telling us that Harry and Jack ‘slogged’ up to Arras, instead of the quick, efficient marching of the soldiers that had been frequently portrayed prior to the First World War such as is described in The Charge Of The Light Brigade where Tennyson conveys the riders riding quckly by the phrase, ‘Half a league, half a league, half a league onward.’ The rhythm of these lines show the quick pace of the soldiers. Sassoon’s poetry presents the unfairness and inequality between the front-line privates and the generals who sat in comfort behind lines. Sassoon attacks the establishment of the country and the tone of his two poems is very sardonic, making fun of the generals in quite a light-hearted way but with a pointed message to his poetry. In The General Sassoon presents â€Å"The General† as incompetent and responsible for the deaths many men. â€Å"Now the soldiers he smiled at are most of ’em dead, And we’re cursing his staff for incompetent swine.† The very last line of the poems refers to Harry and Jack who are named in the poem. This makes the general’s attitude and incompetence more poignant and personal to the reader. â€Å"But he did for them both by his plan of attack.† This short last line is to the point and cuts right to the quick. Sassoon does not play with words like Owen but presents World War One is his poetry in the most succinct way. The majority of his poems are no longer than three short stanzas whereas Owen’s can be eight verses long. However, Sassoon’s message is just as worthy as Owen’s is. Base Details is probably Sassoon’s best poem for attacking the generals as using harsh humour it describes them sitting in luxury hotels while men are starving on the front-line with rationed food. He presents the generals of the First World War as ‘scarlet’ and fat. Although the poem is short, he describes the generals so effectively that we have an image of the generals in our head which does not conform to what we might expect, or certainly not what was generally thought of generals before the war. The title of the poem can be read on different levels – the first being the simple meaning of the word as in headquarters, or on another level, the meanings of ‘in short’ or ‘unworthy’. This emphasises their unworthiness of the elevated positions that they hold. Sassoon’s first line seems to sum up all that he is trying to say: â€Å"If I were fierce, and bald, and short of breath,† This one line immediately gives us a humorous image of a general which is almost like those we see in cartoons today of blustering, half drunk generals sitting in offices wheezing with a pipe in hand. In Base Details Sassoon continues his theme of their unworthiness by describing the generals’ table manners which according to him, are disgusting. He presents them as ‘guzzling and gulping’. These onomatopoeic words give the effect of pigs eating at a trough, especially ‘guzzling’. It also conveys them ‘stuffing their faces’ when the soldiers on the front-line are risking their lives day after day with little to eat. We associate these words with animal behaviour and this is indeed what Sassoon is trying to present. He also presents the generals as naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve and frivolous, spending the war in the ‘best hotels’ and when their presence was required after a battle they brushed off the importance of war calling it a ‘scrap’. Sassoon’s bitterness is also displayed when the general says ‘I used to know his father well’. This emphasises his bitterness effectively towards the upper classes and old boy network, angry that whether you survive the war depends on class and connections. This bitterness is integral to many of his poems and is also evident, in a less direct way, in The General. Both Owen and Sassoon present the loss of youth in their poems. In Dulce et Decorum est, Owen is bitter towards those who tell ‘children’ – a word which emphasises their youth – the ‘old Lie’ ‘Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori’ or in English, ‘It is sweet and honourable to die for one’s country’. The use of the Latin here emphasises the traditional nature of war and the patriotism that the Latin evokes in men. The idea of the loss of youth is more evident in Owen’s second poem, Anthem For Doomed Youth, where the very title shows all that Owen thinks about sending boys off to war. He himself was only twenty-two when he joined the army and thus would have known about how terrible it was. The words of the title, ‘Anthem For Doomed Youth’ has the theme of a funeral and says how not only youth itself is doomed but youth as an idea. Owen also mentions, in the second stanza, the words ‘boys’ and ‘girls’ which stresses once again the youth of the soldiers and perhaps of their nurses or their girlfriends. Only Base Details mentions the loss of youth in Sassoon’s poems saying near the end that ‘youth’ is ‘stone dead’. Taken out of the context of the poem, this phrase is disturbing – the loss of a whole generation of men and also the loss of innocence of those who survived. In context, the phrase becomes even more disturbing, that more of the fat, drunk generals of sixty, have survived the war, while boys of seventeen have died. The whole line reads: â€Å"And when the war is done and youth stone dead† The casual nature of this line is shocking and represents how Sassoon pictures the generals’ view of the loss of millions of boys. A whole generation has been lost or affected so badly by the war and the majors would ‘toddle’ safely home to bed where they could die. The word ‘toddle’ is very visual and humourously conveys the generals ‘waddling’ back to England as they are so fat. It also shows their child-like nature and their frivolity. The bitterness that Sassoon feels is clearly evident in this poem. In contrast, The General mentions nothing of the idea of youth but concentrates more on the inept nature of ‘The General’. These poems are very different to the nature of those by Rupert Brooke, a young soldier who was killed at the beginning of the war and had experienced little fighting. The first stanza of his poem Peace he describes how wonderful it is that he is alive at this time and he can fight for his country â€Å"Now God be thanked Who has matched us with his hour† He also describes going to war ‘as swimmers into cleanness leaping’, very different to the dirty and horrific conditions that Owen describes. Owen and Sassoon differ very greatly in the structure of their poems – Owen tends to write longer, more detailed poetry whereas Sassoon writes short and succinct poems. Anthem for Doomed Youth is a sonnet which is traditional style of poetry but the themes that Owen deals with are very modern, contrasting with the style that he has chosen to use. However, the rhyme scheme of a sonnet does not always remain true to its traditional form such as in the last stanza of Anthem for Doomed Youth where it is e.f.f.e.g.g. The rhyme scheme of Sassoon’s poetry is very simple and direct, which reflects the nature of his poems. He generally uses alternate rhyme, except the last lines where he uses a rhyming couplet such as in Base Details ‘dead’ and ‘bed’. In The General the last three lines have the same rhyme – ‘Jack’, ‘pack’ and ‘attack’. The rhyming couplet gives emphasis to the end of the poem. Sassoon’s poetry is short, pithy and succinct, conveying one or several points in maybe two or three short stanzas such as The General, which is only seven lines long compared to Owen’s poetry which is usually longer. The style of Sassoon is more colloquial, using soldiers’ slang such as ‘He’s a cheery old card,’ grunted Harry to Jack.’ and tends to be more vitriolic such as ‘And speed glum heroes up the line to death.’ Conversely, Owen uses descriptive and elaborate words that convey the atmosphere and images that the poems evoke, such as his unforgettable and shocking description of the dead man in the third stanza of Dulce et Decorum est. Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon present different aspects of World War One – Owen, the conditions and horrific deaths of the ordinary soldiers in contrast to Sassoon’s pointed and bitter attack against the majors. They do this in very different ways and despite Sassoon’s influence on Owen, their styles are extremely contrasting but no less effective. Their poetry helped mark a radical change in the way war poetry was written and it is their presentation of their themes that effected this shift.

Community Work Service for Adult Offenders

The focus is on Community work service as an alternative sentencing. Community work service allows the offender to contribute to the community. This type of work can be considered a win-win situation, because the offenders provide the service and the community benefits from their work. There are all kinds of work activities for offenders. The points that are going to be addressed are: community work service, probation officers, taxpayers, overcrowding and the benefits each party gains. It can be concluded that community work service is here to stay. Hence, it can be seen as a second chance to repair the damage done by making right out of wrong. Community service is when someone performs an action which benefits his or her community. However, community work service can be a form of alternative sentencing. The offender is ordered by a court or probation officer to perform community work service as part of a sanction. Through community service, offenders are offered the chance to â€Å"give back† to the community by providing a service that enriches the lives of others. The offenders are placed into unpaid community service positions with non-profit or tax supported community agencies† (Cook county, 2006). The probation officer carefully monitors the offender’s progress by checking with the agency, ensuring that the offenders is regularly reporting to complete the hours, as well as monitoring the offenders' attitude and quality of work. The probation officer is also responsible for reporting any negative incidents to the court in an effort the hold the offender accountable. Community service is a form of restorative justice, which involves victim, offender, and community. Criminal justice is asset of institutions and procedures for determining which people deserve to be sanctioned because of their wrongdoing and what kind of sanctions they deserve to receive† (Clear, 2003). Community work service allows sentences to more closely fit the circumstances of certain offences, and ensures that adult offenders are held accountable to the community for their actions. Hence, alternative sentencing is, applied to offenders whose absence of prior criminal history or general characteristics indicates that they can be trusted not to abuse their greater freedom. Community work service is punishment that takes away an offenders time and energy† (Schmalleger, 2009). Restorative justice is the concept that any crime, regardless of size or severity, hurts the community. Instead of merely paying a fine or spending time in jail, the offender is able to repair some of the damage done by participating in community service. â€Å"There is a need to understand who or what is being restored, including the core values of healing, moral learning, community participation, community caring, respectful dialogue, forgiveness, responsibility, apology, and making amends† (Sieh, 2006). The work assignment gives both the community and workers a chance to benefit from the experience. All offenders participating in the program are supervised by personnel at the sponsoring agency and by probation officers. â€Å"within the community justice frame work, the need to establish enduring partnerships with citizenry, other agencies, and local interest groups is critical to the success of probation† (Sieh, 2006). There are all kinds of work activities for offenders. Examples of work placements include: * Agencies offering services to senior citizens or the handicapped * Hospitals * Highway cleanup Parks maintenance * Skilled labor (carpentry) * Landscaping * Painting During probation, offenders must stay out of trouble and meet various other requirements. Probation officers, who are called community supervision officers in some States, supervise people who have been placed on probation. â€Å"Probation officers supervise offenders on probation or parole through personal contact with the offenders and their families† (Schmalleger, 2009). Instead of requiring offenders to meet officers in their offices, many officers meet offenders in their homes and at their places of employment or therapy. Some offenders are required to wear an electronic device so that probation officers can monitor their location and movements. â€Å"Probation supervision has three main elements: resource mediation, surveillance, and enforcement† (Schmalleger, 2009). Probation officers may arrange for offenders to get substance abuse rehabilitation or job training. Probation officers usually work with either adults or juveniles exclusively. Only in small, usually rural, jurisdictions do probation officers counsel both adults and juveniles. Probation officers must be ware that they will not always be effective in helping probationers, making it necessary to find outside resources for the probationer to succeed† (Sieh, 2006). Probation officers also spend much of their time working for the courts. They investigate the backgrounds of the accused, write presentence reports, and recommend sentences. They review sentencing recommendations with offenders and their families before submitting them to the court. Probation officers may be required to testify in court as to their findings and recommendations. They also attend hearings to update the court on offenders’ efforts at rehabilitation and compliance with the terms of their sentences. The number of cases a probation officer or correctional treatment specialist handles at one time depends on the needs of offenders and the risks they pose. Higher risk offenders and those who need more counseling usually command more of the officer’s time and resources. Caseload size also varies by agency jurisdiction. Consequently, â€Å"officers may handle from 20 to more than 100 active cases at a time† (Sieh, 2006). Probationers perceive probation officers as agents who will assist them, while, judges are viewed as agents whose main purpose is to punish offenders for wrongdoing† (Sieh, 2006). When an offender is placed on community supervision by the court, he/she signs a â€Å"contract† whereby he/she agrees to abide by certain conditions. These conditions usually include: * Report to the probation officer * Do not commit any new crime * Do not use alcohol and / or drugs or enter bars * Do not leave the County or State * Perform community work service Pay restitution, fine, court fees and probation fees if ordered * Permit the supervisor to visit him/her at the home or elsewhere By having the offender do community work service the offender will realize that not only do most crimes have a direct victim, but, the community is a victim as well. Having an offender provide services to the community rather than going to jail is beneficial to the tax payers. The tax payers don’t have to worry about another person going to prison where it might be overcrowded. Because overcrowded prisons have been a major problem in our society. In 2006, 8 of the nation’s 25 largest jails were operating at over 100 percent of their rated capacity† (Schmalleger, 2009). Having community work service as an alternative helps ease things down between the taxpayers and the justice system when it comes to the question, who has to pay to keep the offender in prison. Overcrowding puts prisoners at significant risk. People living in crowded conditions are more likely to get sick, stay sick, and pass diseases on to others. They are more likely to experience mental health problems, particularly stress-related mental illnesses. They are more likely to develop aggression and frustration. (Schmalleger, 2009). Being forced into crowded conditions with other prisoners results in riots, abuse, and assault. The prison system struggles to keep up with disciplinary problems when it has minimal staff and outdated facilities. This often results in brutal abuse at the hands of guards and other prison personnel. Overcrowding also limits access to resources. This includes health care for prisoners. Prisoners have died due to lack of health access because a nurse or doctor is not available and it’s considered ‘unsafe’ to transfer a prisoner for medical care. Considering that rates of hepatitis, HIV, and numerous other chronic conditions are high in prisons, lack of access to routine health care is a serious issue† Schmalleger, 2009). Lack of access to medications or irregular access to medications puts prisoners with chronic illnesses at extreme risk. â€Å" If extreme enough, overcrowding can lead to a court order that necessitates early release of certain prisoners in order to bring jails into compliance with the Constitution† (Schmalleger, 2009).